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The ancient roots of opera 

Geraldine Johansson suggests that modern opera has more in common with a 2,500-year-old theatre tradition than anything else in between. 

A.  When opera began during the Renaissance, it was formed with the notion held by many that all parts in Greek dramatic productions were sung. While this view has been somewhat revised by modern scholars, there certainly was a sung element to Greek drama, even if this was only the chorus and not the whole or the majority of the performance, as we find in operas. It is curious to think that a genre of musical performance as enduring as opera might have been based in part on a false assumption. 

B.   Ancient Greek theatre was perhaps closer to today's opera than any art form in the intervening years. It is well documented that music and drama were often combined in ancient Greek productions. Both music and theatre were considered to be fundamentals in education. The singing and dancing of Dionysian festivals and rites evolved into theatre, and we know that Aristophanes, Sophocles and Euripides wrote monodies into plays — lines that were meant to be sung. We do not know how the music sounded, since the form of musical notation is believed to have been combinations of letters, not notes, which represented different rhythmic and melodic qualities. It is thought that most musical accompaniments were merely meant to augment the singing; the music followed the same melody as the vocal line. Nevertheless, it is this use of music in drama that would eventually lead to the art of opera around two thousand years later.

C.   Opera was part of a wider movement aimed at a revival of classical values, although it is so closely associated with tragedy that it is tempting to think that its sole purpose was to revive that genre alone. Yet we know that the ancient Greeks also had comedy and satyr plays (a form of tragic-comedy based on mythological themes). The Camerata of Florence (in modern-day Italy) was a group of poets, musicians and intellectuals who actually 'designed' the opera format in the latter part of the 16th century. But they did so with the whole range of classical works in mind. So perhaps it is the public who have forged opera's link with tragedy, and the operas that people immediately think of are tragic ones.Certainly, popularity audiences drove the success of operatic tragedy at the expense of comic operas, historical operas and operas with happy endings, all ofwhich were written. 

D.  The oldest surviving opera, Euridice, dates back to the year 1600, and was based on the work of the Roman poet Ovid which, in turn, was based upon ancient Greek myth. The opera was written to celebrate the marriage of Henry IV of France to Maria de Medici, who was a member of the powerful Medici family from Florence, and a little showing off while honouring the king of France was behind the idea. The spectacle of Euridice clearly impressed all who were there. Soon, other noble families wanted to commission works to show off their own power and wealth, and the idea of commissioning an opera spread beyond Florence. All this is significant because it shows how the production flattered those for whom it was written; another common bond with ancient Greek theatre. 

E.   Early opera could be both moralistic and political, and we know, for example, that Mozart's Don Giovanni had its ending rewritten to better portray the triumph of good over evil. This was done to avoid offending the sensibilities of a particular audience (in this case, the people of Vienna). Later operas were chosen so that there was an intended comparison between the heroes of ancient Greece (as portrayed in the opera) and the person who commissioned the production. Real-life nobility were expected to see themselves reflected in the actions of the heroes. As time went on, the opposite happened, whereby the writer of operas would use their work as a vehicle for criticism or satire of those in power. Both subtexts had been, of course, commonplace in ancient Greek theatre. 

F.    None of this is to say that the intervening years were not formative ones for opera, but medieval productions were much less closely linked. What we had in the two millennia between ancient Greece and renaissance Italy were genres including morality plays, farces and masques, all of which doubtless contained music and drama. Most medieval theatre, however, was religious in nature, and took religious themes as its subject matter using the somewhat limited musical forms preferred by the church.As this was not intended for public performance in the same way as ancient Greek drama or renaissance opera were, its relevance is limited to the development of music per se, rather than its integration with drama to form a performing art. 

Choose the correct heading for sections A-F from the list of headings below

List of headings i      More than just tragedy ii     Drama without the singing iii    The relevance of the ancient Greece iv    Other influences v     Adapting the message vi    The missing link vii    Mistaken belief at the founding of opera viii  Modern-day productions ix    The reason opera took off

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